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历时十八周 顺利完成 厦门宏都大酒店高级英语培训 [小班信息]
发表于:2012-12-03 阅读:14次
历时18周的企业定制课程,酒店高级英语培训顺利结课,该专项培训注重口语实际操作能力和各环节的各部门的英语会话训练,听力训练,现场演练,考试实行笔试,听力,口试三方面结合,更加注重应用能力测试。
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优秀论文 [学术论文]
发表于:2012-12-03 阅读:32次
Introduction
Fuzzy and precise are the basic attributes of the human language. The language not only has the accuracy, also has its fuzziness, they are indispensable and both complement one another. Just like English linguist Jones said: "We all (including those pursuing precise and unmistakable persons) in speaking and writing use the terminology and the principle not precisely, indefinitely, with the difficulty to give their definition, this certainly does not hinder the extremely useful of the word we use, moreover it is essential, as the human has the general knowledge (direct feeling, intuition), usually people use the imprecise expression method and the terminology with the difficulty to give its definition, but they still mutually understood." ⑴ The business language is the human language used in the commercial situations, thus, it similarly has these attributes. One important characteristic of international commercial English is clarity, namely in the written commerce correspondence and the contract or carrying on commercial negotiations and so on we should avoid using the ambiguous or interpretation languages to avoid inconvenient and misunderstanding in the commercial activities. However, in the actual commercial intercommunications, the business language has its fuzziness.
I. Fuzzy language Language fuzziness actually reflects many transition phenomena existed in the objective reality. American philosopher Max Black said that, "The word fuzziness symbol is the limited scope which the word utilizes without clear boundary." ⑵ In other words, word fuzziness displays that it has the application-enclosed area, but this region boundary is not explicit. Lakoff explains hedges as " words and expressions made things fuzzy " are the most common, the most typical fuzzy language.⒀ As far as the substantiality concerned, the language itself is not quantification fuzzy set; it has the immateriality shape and the non-intuitionistic dim characteristics. The fuzzy language uses in the certain linguistic environment and the situation, it may play the unique role, the fuzzy language information on the surface seems fuzzy, but it substantially and relatively accurately expresses the complex emotion, the spoken motive or the latent consciousness; it relatively objectively rigorously expresses some kind of observation, the viewpoint, the forecast or the theory, thus it implicitly expresses the real thought and the innermost world, or it provides the logical, correct and reliable information. Language fuzziness is different to the ambiguity (different meanings) or thickness of language, “ambiguity or ambivalence" refers to the language mark sequence of the identical form to express two or above different significances, the unconscious result produced in the language use process, it may be eliminated. “Thickness” refers to something originally should be said clearly has not been said clearly, often refers to the negative results produced by improperly using of the language, a phenomenon which must be avoided as far as possible. "Fuzzy" refers to a kind of indefiniteness, which the central meaning of words and expressions in the language is clear about, but the scope boundary of the words and expressions is indefinite ⑶. This indefiniteness or fuzziness usually cannot or needlessly be removed through the context; it was determined by the fuzziness of the objective thing itself and the indefiniteness of people knowing about the objective world. II. The basic characteristics of fuzzy language Language fuzziness is represented in three stratification planes: the pronunciation, the glossary and the sentence. Many words and expressions of human language such as time, place, quantity, shape, the degree, the feeling and so on usually have factors: insufficiently clear about, unable to determine etc. and so to express these situations, the language unavoidably has the fuzzy color.
2.1 The indefiniteness of words and expressions referring to the scope and boundary Russell, the English renowned philosopher once said, "A word has one, more or less fuzzy significance." ⑷ The American philosopher Blake in his book "Language And Philosophy" pointed out, "Words and expressions fuzziness displays that they have the enclosed area of application, but this region boundary is not explicit."Obviously, the fuzzy thing is fuzzy, lies in lacks itُ s the explicit boundary. The glossary fuzziness mostly expresses such category of glossary: time, space, quality, degree, color, etc. Its semantic fuzziness results from its frequent indefiniteness in the use of scope. Another kind of vocabulary expresses approximate concept such as approximately, as if, probably, nearly and so on, some scholar called them as "the fuzzy limit word" or " fuzzy tag". Glossary fuzziness also displays in the word reference, like “God", “Ghost "etc. These words reflected the things do not exist in the objective world, they have not actual reference, the people only imagine without foundation, and thus they also have fuzziness. 2.2 The indefiniteness for the conditions and possibilities of things The law of excluded middle held that, two mutually contradictory concepts, cannot be simultaneously false, must be one true and one false, and cannot have the third possibility. Engels once wrote the article to criticize law of excluded middle, called materialist dialectics person " absolutely distinct and the fixed invariable boundary cannot be acknowledged in the world ", and held "the dialectics can make the difference of the fixed metaphysics mutually to transit", except that "either this or that", dialectics also acknowledged in the suitable place "both this and that", and caused the opposition for intermediary. The section of Engels’ speech has exactly promulgated "also this also that" fuzziness. For example, horse and donkey can have their descendant--- not a horse or donkey but the mule. III. Reasons for fuzzy languages The coming into being of fuzzy language has two reasons: objective reason and subjective reason. For the first place, the objective things are inexhaustible but language is abstractive; for the second place, the limited human cognition, individual differences, etc. 3.1 Objective reason The massive existence of fuzzy language has its objective, the objective things are concrete and inexhaustible, but the language is abstract and general, its unit cannot be infinitely increased. Hawks said that, " space time is a continual body in fact, it has not fixed or unchanged boundary or division, each language divides its time and space according to its own special structure ". Obviously, spatial and time existence is objective, shifting without person's will, regardless of how deepening of people's understanding, its fuzziness exists forever. 3.2 Subjective reasons There are many subjective reasons for fuzzy language. Language user's intercommunicative need, human limited cognition ability, individual differences, suspension meaning, etc. are the main aspects that we will discuss below. 3.2.1 Language user's intercommunicative need Lewis proposed the differences between the fuzzy language and the non-fuzzy language lies in language and the language user′s relations but it does not lies in the relations between the language and the objective world, the people may usually and accurately carry on their language expression, even if sometimes this kind of expression encounters with some difficulties, people cannot care about it very much ⑸. For example, in the spoken language, the speaker has the scruples, fears looking for trouble, fears stimulating and injuring the other people; facing sensitive and subtle topic, in order to get rid of the difficult position or the pester; the uncertain reply to others' request and so on. If we make good use of the fuzzy expression, we can enable our own speech to have some kind of elastic pragmatics principle and politeness principle. 3.2.2 Human limited cognition ability To the inconsistent of inexhaustible objective things as well as the concept and reference, the humanity can not but use the generalization method, expresses the maximum information content with the aid of the less languages unit. Therefore, when we take the language as the human communicative tools, language fuzziness is inevitable. 3.2.3 Individual differences of language intercommunication In fact, the language intercommunication is the difference intercommunication. As the intercommunication main body, the language users, individual has the cognition differences; the individual respectively has the differences to the world understanding and in the cognitive ability; it is also various regarding the concept sensation and the experience to cause the essential cognition difference between the speaker (expressing party) and the listeners (understanding party). For example, for a similar concept, different speaker possibly has the different expression method, but the different individual possibly has the different understanding regarding the identical expression, thus the differences and the pragmatics fuzziness produced. Moreover, psychological, cultural differences as well as language changes and developments factors and so on produce the uncoordinated influence to each intercommunicative main body, which also cause the pragmatics fuzziness in intercommunication. 3.2.4 Suspense meaning placed by the language users Suspense refers to the language information which the speaker transmits has the determination side, also has indefinite side, while the listener immediately increases the meaning and make supplement when s/he accepted the language information. This kind of significance causes the two to interact to each other, and that causes the listener’s various concrete understanding to be suspense significance, consequently, causes uncertain fuzzy language to transform into the different definiteness. IV. Pragmatics functions in international commercial English fuzzy language J. Channell pointed out that the fuzzy words and expressions are specially chosen for the language intercommunication, many motives are behind the use fuzzy language. The pragmatics functions about the fuzzy language, Channell summarizes ten points: to provide the just right information, to be unwilling to explain the details; to possess advising; interruptive transition of the word meaning; to be lack of the concrete information; the displacement; self protection; trenchancy and politeness; unofficial atmosphere; woman language⒁. The American philosophers H.P. Grice pointed out in l967 in Harvard University′s series lectures, in the process of intercommunications, in order to guarantee the conversation smoothly to carry on, both sides of the speakers have to observe some basic principles, namely "the cooperation principle", and proposed the four subsidiary criteria of judgments or the concrete realization of cooperation principle, they are: quantity criterion, quality criterion, relation criterion and method criterion ⒂.His analysis conclusion is similarly suitable for special application language, according to the different situations in the international commercial intercommunications people can consciously use the fuzzy language to achieve some kind of pragmatics goal, either provide the just right information to enhance the language expression efficiency, either be unwilling to explain the details to keep the trade secret, either make up the concrete information to enhance the accuracy of the language expression, either express politeness to relax the awkward aspect, and so on. But Grice’s quality criterion request the information provided must be real, do not say the self-awareness false words, do not say the words without enough evidence. In the commercial English fuzzy language use has just followed this criterion. 4.1 Enhancing the pragmatics precision and its efficiency Sperber & Wilson, in1986,proposed the pragmatics connection theory which took two big principles as the foundation: The cognition principle, namely the human cognition tends to produce the biggest connection; the intercommunication principle, namely discourse produces have the connection expectation⑹. The core of connection theory is the best connection, namely to achieve sufficient contextual efforts with no unjustifiable processing efforts in utterance interpretation. As the indetermination of the objective itself, the information that the fuzzy language transmitted sometimes can be more accurate. This has manifested the dialectical unification of fuzzy and precise. Therefore in the specific social occasions, the fuzzy dictions can express the thoughts and feelings more accurately and can obtain the highly effective diplomatic effect than the precise dictions do. Example 1: "China Daily" reported Premier Li Peng: "Chinese Premier Li Peng yesterday expressed the hope that entrepreneurs of the United States will continue efforts to help bring about an all-round improvement and development of Sino-US relations."⒃ What are the all-round improvement and development of Sino-US relations? As the diplomatic tactics needed, it is fuzzy, but the readers can accept it mentally and without suspecting the fact′s authenticity. Example 2:As far as we know,insurance companies accept goods packed in cartons to be insured against TPND. In this example, the supplier wants to provide the related cargo insurance information to the opposite party to make them feel relieved, but cannot definitely provide whether the information is accurate, the information source is reliably, therefore, fuzzy language "as far as we know" is used, it indicated this was only we understood, it didn’t represent the others’ opinions so as to avoid the information provided lacking of the proof, thus enhanced the accuracy of the expression. The fuzzy language can increase the intercommunicative information content, transmit enough information with the fewer prices, make the high efficiency judgments and processing to the complex things. In the commercial activities, sometimes, it is not essential to be too precisely, the fuzzy language using can obtain the best connection. The commercial advertisement prominently has manifested this point---brief language expresses desired effect. Example 1 One kind of cigarette ads in the US:Make it a mild smoke. Mild seven.Smooth,rich,rewarding. Example 2: Romantic.Mysterious.Italian. This advertisement only uses three fuzzy semantic adjective, actually it expresses the extremely deep connotation, can enable the person fully to transfer the related knowledge to launch the infinite imagination, thus achieves the best propaganda effect. 4.2 Strengthening pragmatics effect and the flexibility In the process of diction intercommunication, because of the influence factors as the topic, the context and so on, the speaker uses fuzzy language to come to some effects with a few efforts Example 1: It’s at the disposal of the board.We’ll give you our reply as soon as possible. On the surface, it promises "as soon as possible", in fact, only it is the delaying tactics, what the board of directors’ opinion is, how to process finally, it can be settled down as it needed. Example 2: Your balance of$835 is delinquent⒄.---- correction:Your balance of$835 is past due. Some investigation discovered, businessmen more positive to the positive request, usually the appropriate and polite language may cause anticipated economic utility. "Delinquent" is in fact, the word with the negative significance, "past due" also has the negative significance, but somewhat persuasive and tactful. Example 3: The registered capital shall be generally represented in Renminbi, or may be in a foreign currency agreed upon by the parties to the joint venture.⑺ Here fuzzy expressions "generally, may" have manifested both parties of the contract nimble manner. 4.3 Manifesting politeness principle and relaxing the awkward situations The linguist Leech proposes "politeness principle". It contains six sub- criteria: appropriate criterion, tolerant criterion, commendation criterion, humble criterion, consistent criterion and sympathetic criterion ⒅.It provides the reasonable explanation for people to use the fuzzy language. It is key for people to treat each other with polite in business activities. The fuzzy language can make the expression more connotative, more relaxed and more polite. In international business negotiations, when we meet with opposite opinions or inconvenient spoken situations, if our language processing is inappropriate, we would fall into the deadlock. Example 1: A: I'm afraid that the price you put forward just now is a little bit high. B: Your product presentation makes me feel a little too--you know what l mean. Both sides of negotiations didn’t bring out their own idea directly, but used fuzzy language "isn ' t up too much, you know what I mean" to make the language expression tactfully with connotation, made the reply rich elastic, made the awkward situation relaxed, thus carried the negotiations on smoothly. Example 2: Could you lower your price a bit so that we can conclude the quick transaction? Compare:Can you lower your price a bit so that we can conclude the quick transaction? Example 3:We wanted to know whether you could effect shipment one month earlier. Compare:We want to know whether you could effect shipment one month earlier. In the face-to-face commercial discussion, indicated inquiry, request or different viewpoint expression with opposite party, if we use "Can you", "Will you", "I wonder", "I am sure", sometimes it appears stiffly, offensively, too firmly and absolutely in mood, if we use "Could you", "Would you", "I wanted ⋯", "I wondered ⋯", "I was sure ⋯" then adds some fuzzy words and expressions like "a bit", "earlier" and so on it appears persuasively, polite, temperate, appropriate, easily accepted by the opposite party. 4.4 Making the language visual and humorous to make the self-protection In the certain context, the fuzzy language through its vivid and humorous characteristics increases the commercial article, the commercial advertisement or the commercial discussion elegant demeanor. Leech thought the pragmatics fuzzy, namely the indetermination of the conversation words, cannot cause the sub audition unclear, and then may satisfy the common interest of both intercommunicative sides. The two kind of or above explanations of the speakers aim to let the listeners to undertake consequence part of responsibilities, which these words caused to make the speakers have room for maneuver. ⒆ As Channell says, the fuzzy language used can protect oneself make blunders. (20) This function manifests in the different commercial situations. Take the commercial advertisement as the example, "Advertisement Law" requests the advertisement to compete impartially, fairly, reasonably, legally, therefore the advertisement terminology must really express the original appearance of the commodity to make the person clearly understand its characteristic and performance; in fact the fuzzy language exists massively in various advertisements. Example 1:Seven-up is uncola.This commercial advertisement is a pun and fuzzy is expressive. Surface significance: Seven-up is not cola. Inner meaning: Seven-up does not contain the caffeine. From one to the other with humorous nature, it’s unconscious to achieve the goal of propaganda commodity in the mind of the people. Example 2:Well,our business policy is very clear,and our enterprise credit is also known to all. ⑻ The other party inquired us the operational policy and the enterprise prestige, under that situation, our negotiation personnel think it was not suitable to reply directly, so we use fuzzy words and expressions "very clear, known to all", to make self- protection. Again, let’s read the commercial contract. Frequently appears the fuzzy words and expressions in the contract context, such as "basically", "essential", "strictly", "suitably", "reasonable", "may", "be supposed" "to have" and so on ⑼. Example 3: Each party agrees to protect the other’s Confidential Information at all times and the same manner as each protests the confidentiality of its own proprietary and confidential materials, but in no event with less than a reasonable standard of care. ⑽ Without a doubt, "reasonable" is a fuzzy word, actually, in the law term "standard of care" is also a fuzzy information, Black ' s Law Dictionary regarding this explanation: "In the law of negligence, the degree of care that a reasonable person should exercise” (21). Reasonable standard of care, this fuzzy measure has reasonably maintained litigant's benefit of the contract. 4.5 Strengthening the advising function of pragmatics and increasing language communication power Sometimes, the communicator might retain the precise information or simply unknowns the precise information and uses the fuzzy language, the information like this has the persuasive power, but we should take Grice’s the quality criterion as the examination criterion, namely, do not say things you think they are wrong, do not say things you lack enough evidence. Once you violate this criterion, possibly march into the exaggeration or false zone. For instance, in the following advertisement: . . . What’s more , you’ll save up to 65 % on stock and option commissions , compared to a full-cost broker. . . ⑾ You may strengthen the persuasive power with the data, because the data always leaves the person precise impression, even if it is fuzzy data "up to 65 %". This is in consistent with the advertisement goal, namely either advising or convincing the consumer to purchase the product or the service. The fuzzy language gives the person rich imagination because of its using scope frequently appearing the indetermination and thus makes the language vivid. For example: Seriously smooth, mysteriously mellow, gloriously golden, who can resist the magic of Camus XO Cognac? ⑿ In the advertisement, several adjectives, the adverbs are used, it vividly described XO, made the person to think its charm and entices, and nobody could resist its temptation. But the adverbs "seriously, mysteriously, gloriously" and the adjectives "smooth, mellow, golden" and so on, their meanings is fuzzy, may leave the audiences freely galloped imagination. V. Fuzzy language rhetoric effects The rhetoric is the discipline that researches the rule of enhancing the language expression effect. "Accurate, brilliant, vivid" are the basic request of traditional rhetoric. The people discovered, the realization of "accurate" goal, are not only depends on precisely, fuzzy also is the important factor that achieves "precise" goal. International commercial English uses the common principle and the knowledge of synthesis disciplines, such as economics, sociology, psychology, rhetoric, and aesthetics to form the unique rhetoric characteristic. 5.1 Humorous effects with humorous charming Famous dictionary scientist Bradley pointed out that, "Few people are satisfied with always relating the matter clearly; the commonly used words as a result of familiarization with lose their strength, if we use a vivid to be lifelike or the weird laughable metaphor, the arid language with plain or straightforward manner can change into the language with abundant interest." (22) Indeed, some slang is precisely through rhetoric technique as metaphor and so on, with some simple, vivid and funny concrete image, to show the meaning and transmit the feelings. Concrete things include animal, daily thing, human body, personal name, color, food and so on. Example 1.But all this leaves the New Republic Inc.without a cash cow. (cash cow “large funds generously reimbursed”.) Example 2.But Wall Street analysts agreed that CBS was unlikely to consider such action,since it amounts to green mail. (Green mail refers "an artifice of making a profit through blackmailing some company ") Example 3.The radio I bought turned out to be a lemon.(Lemon refers to "the inferior "or "unuseful things ") Example 4.You do not have your ticket punched for selling medicine. (The wording meaning of "have one’s ticket punched “is” the hole has been hit on ones own ticket ", the expanded meaning refers to "the legitimate qualifications or the right of doing something "). Example 5.I wanted her to know that many managers nowadays play the army game not only with their business counterparts,but also with their girl employees. (The literal translation of "the army game" is "the army game". This phrase refers to "the fraud or a put-up job") These metaphors are vivid, graceful with respectively different, full of humor and wit, achieve the humorous effect and make the serious tense commercial activity atmosphere enlivened to create the good commercial activity atmosphere. 5.2 Tactful and fair-sounding connotation effects In language communication, connotation gives person the aesthetic and pleasant sensation. The precise language sometimes are too straight and easy to affront the other people, if we use the fuzzy language, we actually can avoid or reduce language thrill, it is easy to form the resonance of thought and sentiment to produce the good persuasive effect. Some scholars proposed that, in English language teaching, the pun, the metaphor, the homonym, the homograph and so on may be regarded as the fuzzy words. It is “one kind of the language fuzziness". Example1.His father is an advertising science specialist. ("the advertisement scientific expert" refers to "the advertisement businessman" i.e. advertiser). More examples: street cleaner --sanitation engineer, dishwasher --bubble dancer, policeman --guardian of the law, bootblack --footwear maintenance engineer, farmer --agriculture science specialist These tactful languages referred to the real work or the things through the fuzzy and exaggerating technique are vivid to enhance the professional rank, to avoid weakening one or others' self-confidence. It has met psychological needs of both sides. 5.3 Vivid and neat aesthetic sense effects The fuzzy rhetoric can express the aesthetic object image carefully to stimulate the people to savor, to seek and to break a code, thus to make the business language vivid, brief and to the point, concise and comprehensive; to strengthen the mood and the communicate power; to build a kind of vivid beautiful drawing.
5.3.1 Parallel structure Example: Advertising cannot make people buy against their wills. It cannot induce repeated purchases of inferior products. It cannot prolong the life of a product that has outlived its usefulness or which has been outmoded… Inferior, outlived, outmoded and so on have the fuzzy significance; but the parallelism structure makes the language concise and comprehensive, increases rhythm feeling, and strengthens the English expressive force. Based on the parallel structure, the similar word order, the reader can grasp the information with full self-confidence fast and accurately. 5.3.2 Metaphor Example: The building site was a beehive,with iron workers still at work on the tenth floor,plumbers installing fixtures on the floors just beneath them,electricians busy on the middle floors ,and carpenters putting the finishing touches on the first floor. In the commercial English, the metaphor frequently makes the complex theory, the things concise, visualized, thus causes the business language to be bright, brief and to the point. 5.3.3 Simile Example: Business is like a man rowing a boat upstream. He has on choice;he must go ahead or he will fall down. Like is a fuzzy word, makes one have the imagination, Compare doing business to rowing a boat upstream. Just like the metaphor, simile makes the implicit business language vivid and easy to understand. 5.3.4 Repetition Example: Similarly,atoms come and go in a molecule,but the molecule remains;molecules come and go in a cell,but the cell remains;cells come and go in a body,but the body remains ; persons come and go in an organization, but the organization remains. Similarly was a fuzzy word, the repetition both strengthened the mood and left the person the deepen impression to some idea to enhance business language expression force. Conclusions The fuzzy language takes full use of the fuzziness of language itself to transmit information. Its indefiniteness through its objective, rigorous way is helpful to enhance communication effect. In the international commercial English teaching, we carry on the English fuzziness analysis, study its practical effect, grasp its expression way in different context, compare similarities and differences with Chinese language, it may make the language learners have a good command of the standard, true to life English, rise to the occasion in each kind of situations, speak correct, tactful, polite and appropriate English. In international commercial English reading, writing or the spoken language teaching, if we lead the students to analyze and utilize fuzzy language, we may enhance the efficiency of English study, it is helpful to us to express our thoughts correctly and clearly, to enhance the objectivity and reliability of the language, in turn, the international commercial English teaching also can promote the fuzzy language analysis and judgment, mutually promote the theory research and the practice enhancement of both subject.
Acknowledgments My special thanks and gratitude are to my supervisor, LinJing-jing, who is the lecturer in the Foreign Languages Department, for her kindly assistance and valuable suggestions during the process of my thesis writing, for her continuous discussion and encouragement while preparing this thesis and for her reviewing and correcting this thesis manuscript. Her willingness to give her time so generously has been very much appreciated. I would like to take this chance to express my sincere gratitude to Dr.XiaTing-de, the Professor of Dalian Marine University, for his comments during my thesis writing. I would like to express my gratitude extends to all the teachers who taught me during my undergraduate years for their kind encouragement and patient instructions. I would like to offer my particular thanks to my friends and family, for their encouragement and support during my study, especially to my wife for her support and effort ,and bearing me during the times while I was very busy, and for the completion of this thesis. Last but not the least, many thanks are to all people who I may forget to mention their names.
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NECI GRAMMAR [初中英语]
发表于:2012-07-16 阅读:200次
新概念一共144课,其中单课为课文,双课为语法和练习。整本书是以单数课为正课,并附带有插图而双数课则是针对单数课所讲的内容有针对性地进行练习,从此出展现出整个新概念一教材区别于其他教材的独特之处。 以下是对新概念一整本教材的理解和剖析,以供各位对整个课本的理解和把握上参考和借鉴。 首先根据课本中出现的时态来分析: 本册书的语法出现层次性和规律性是很强的,首先我们先来整本书中都出了哪些时态,这些时态的具体分布和讲解时我们大家需要注意的递进性。 除去前面所有时态和句型所占据的76课我们一起来看一下以下的68课,每一课小的语言点,语法点都是在什么地方,应该用什么样的方式来讲解。 在这里告诉学员新概念一的每一个单课的重点都是出现双课的标题和课后的练习题里面。 Lesson1—2 Lesson 5—6 Lesson 7—8 Lesson 9—10 Lesson 29—30 Lesson 37—38 Lesson 41-42 Lesson 63-64 Lesson 65-66 Lesson 73-74 Lesson 77-78 Lesson 105-106 Lesson 103-104 Lesson 125-126 Lesson 127-128 Lesson 129-130 Lesson 131-132 以下学的知识慢慢与新二接轨: 现在完成时:Lesson 83—90 英语中的时态一共有八种,它们是:一般现在时、现在进行时、一般过去时、现在完成时、一般将来时、过去进行时、过去完成时、过去将来时。 今天我们所要讲的就是第一种: 一般现在时——表示一般性,经常性的动作或一般性事实。 1、含有be动词的句子 ★变疑问句将be动词移到句首 ★变否定句在be动词后面加not ★肯定回答及否定回答 2、不含有be动词的句子,即含有一般动词的句子。 (1)第三人称单数及单数名词 ★变疑问句在句首加does, 动词变为原型 ★变否定句在主语及动词之间加doesn't, 动词变为原型,原句中的动词不再有第三人称变化。 ★肯定回答及否定回答: 注意:第三人称单数形式一般在动词后面加S,不要和名词复数混淆,变否定句或疑问句时名词复数没有任何变化。 (2)其他人称及复数名词 ★变疑问句在句首加do ★变否定句在主语和动词之间加don't. ★肯定回答及否定回答 现在进行时 ——表示现在正在进行的动作 构成:主语+be动词+动词的现在分词+其它成分 ★变疑问句将be动词移到句首 ★变否定句在be动词后面加 not ★特殊疑问句:what, which, how, where, who, etc. 没有进行时的动词(必背) 表示状态,思想,感情和感觉的动词不能表示正在进行的动作: 1. 表示感觉,感官的词 2. have, has当“拥有”讲时没有进行时 一般过去时 表示过去发生的动作或事件,常和表示过去的时间状语连用,如yesterday, last night, the day before yesterday, 3 days ago... 含有be动词的句子,将be动词变为过去式。am, is的过去式为was, are的过去式为were: ★变疑问句将be动词移动到句首 ★变否定句在be动词后面加not ★肯定回答否定回答 ★特殊疑问句 不含有be动词的句子,将动词变为过去式: ★变疑问句在句首加did,动词变为原型 ★变否定句在主语和动词之间加did not ★肯定回答及否定回答 现在完成时 用法: 2) 询问别人是否做过某事一般用现在完成时: 3) 表示开始于过去并持续到现在的动作 4) 表示一种经历,经验:去过…地方,做过…事情,经历过…事情 5) 表示一种结果, 一般不和时间副词联用 句型变化: ★肯定回答及否定回答 ★特殊疑问句 一般过去时与现在完成时的区别: 一般将来时 ——表示将来将要发生的动作, 经常和tomorrow, next year, the day after tomorrow, the year after the next, in five hours' time, etc. 表示将来的词联用。 ★变疑问句将助动词移到句首 ★变否定句在助动词后面加not ★肯定回答及否定回答 ★特殊疑问句 过去完成时 用法:在过去的时间里,两个动作中,发生在前的哪个动作要用过去完成时。 After/before引导的时间状语从句放在句首要在句子后面加逗号,如果放在主句后则不用加。 ★ 变疑问句将助动词移到句首 ★ 变否定句在助动词后面加not ★ 肯定回答及否定回答 ★ 特殊疑问句 过去进行时 ——表示过去正在进行的动作,经常用在when, while, as引导的状语从句中。 结构:was/were+doing When my husband was going into the dining room this morning, he dropped some coins on the floor. Their father was watching TV while they were having dinner. ★变疑问句将be动词移到句首 ★变否定句在be动词后面加 not 过去将来时 结构:would do 两个特殊句型:there be 句型,be going to 结构 1) Be going to 结构——表示打算,准备,计划做某事 ★结构:主语+be动词+going to +动词原型 ★变疑问句将be动词移到句首 ★变否定句在be动词后面加not ★肯定回答及否定回答 ★特殊疑问句(必背) 2) There be 句型——表示哪里有什么东西(某处有某物) There is+单数名词+表示场所的词(一般为介词词组) ★变疑问句将be动词移到句首 ★变否定句在动词后面加not ★肯定回答及否定回答 问句: 一般疑问句,特殊疑问句,选择疑问句,反意疑问句,选择疑问句,否定疑问句 1) 一般疑问句:助动词/be动词+主语 2) 特殊疑问句:特殊疑问词+一般疑问句 3) 选择疑问句:or 4) 反意疑问句: 肯定陈述句+否定疑问部分,否定陈述部分+肯定疑问部分 5) 否定疑问句:一般疑问句+否定词 限定词: some, any, many, much • some, any 修饰可数名词或不可数名词,some用于肯定句,any用于否定句和疑问句。注意:当期待对方的答案为肯定回答时用some。 I have some milk. • many修饰可数名词,much修饰不可数名词。在口语中表示“很多”一般不用many, much, 而用a lot of, 在否定句中表示“很多”用many, much。 I have a lot of money. 名词 名词分为可数名词和不可数名词: 1)不可数名词 无法分开的东西:water, tea, bread, milk, rice 不可数名词有以下特点: 不能用a, an修饰; 2)可数名词 单数可数名词要用冠词修饰,复数可数名词要在名词后面加s。名词复数共有以下几种变化: • 规则变化的名词复数形式 规则1 一般情况+s e.g. shell→shells book→books 规则2 以s, x, ch, sh结尾+es e.g. fox→foxes church→churches, bus→buses, watch→watches 规则3 以o结尾+s或+es e.g. potato→potatoes, Negro→Negroes, hero→heroes, tomato→tomatoes,(口诀:黑人英雄爱吃土豆和西红柿),剩下一般加s, radio→radios 规则4 以f, fe结尾的,变f, fe为ves e.g. life→lives half→halves, shelf→shelves, city→cities, wife→wives 规则5 以辅音字母+y结尾, 变y为i+es e.g. sky→skies fly→flies • 不规则变化的名词复数形式 man(men) woman(women) foot(feet) goose(geese) tooth(teeth) 副词 副词可以修饰形容词,动词,副词或整个句子。如: The book is very good. 副词变化形式: • 直接在形容词后加-ly: • 以辅音字母加y结尾的形容词,把y变i, 加-ly: • 有些词形容词和副词的形式相同,不需要做任何变化: • 有些词加上-ly后意思与原词相差很远: 情态动词的使用 1)情态动词can(能够),must(必须),may(可以) ★变疑问句将情态动词移到句首 ★变否定句在情态动词后面加not ★肯定回答及否定回答 ★特殊疑问句:(必背) 注意:情态动词的句子没有第三人称单数的变化,不要在情态动词或动词后面加s。 2)must/have to的区别 3)must, may, might表示猜测: 4)can't/couldn't 表示不可能 need的用法 • 表示“需要”时为实意动词,后面可以加名词,也可以加不定式: I need a pen. Need doing=need to be done (表示被动) The flowers need watering. =The flowers need to be watered. 花需要浇水。 • need在否定时做情态动词使用: You needn’t go so early. (=You don’t need to go so early.) 不定代词及不定副词 some, any, no, every -thing: something, anything, nothing, everything 例子: 1)I looked for my book everywhere, but I can’t find it anywhere. 感叹句: 1) What +名词+主语+谓语 What a beautiful girl she is! 2) How +形容词+主语+谓语 How beautiful the girl is! • 在口语中,感叹句的主语和谓语常常省略: What a nice present!(省略it is) 祈使句表示请求、命令、建议、邀请等,谓语动词一律用原型,句子中通常不用主语,句末用惊叹好或者句号,用降调。 ★肯定句:动词原型 Come here, please. 祈使句中如果有唤语,一定要用逗号隔开,放在句首或者句尾: ★否定:Don't+动词原型 Don't come here. let sb. do 让某人做 Let me pass. 反意疑问: 倒装句:so/neither的倒装 eg: He can swim. So can I. 结构: 助动词: 直接引语/间接引语 如果引语的主句所用动词为过去时,那么间接引语要做相应变化:时态,人称,时间地点及指示词 1) 时态变化: 一般现在时——一般过去时 be going to——was/were going to/would 2) 时间地点及指示词的变化: here-there, tomorrow-the next day, the following day, this-that… 3) 人称变化:根据句意改变人称。 4) 直接宾语/间接宾语 主语+及物动词+间接宾语+直接宾语 直接宾语是及物动词的直接对象,间接宾语是及物动词的动作所涉及的人或事务,也可以说间接宾语表示动作是对谁做的,或者是为谁做的。所以间接宾语要用名词或者宾格代词来担当。 He gives me a book.(me间接宾语,a book直接宾语) 直接宾语和间接宾语的位置调换时要加一个介词to或for: Give me a book. = Give the book to me. 1)代词及be动词 2)名词的复数 3)动词的第三人称单数形式 4)动词现在分词 5)动词过去式 规则动词变化 过去式的读音 6)形容词和副词的比较级和最高级 比较级 最高级 7)常见缩写: |
中西婚礼差异 [随笔杂谈]
发表于:2012-07-16 阅读:28次
Marriage as a human institution exists in so many civilizations that weddings have naturally become an important part in people's life. It is full of happiness and deep love in each wedding, and weddings make girls becoming the unique and most beautiful person in the world on that day. However, different countries have different wedding forms because of diverse cultures, Western and Chinese weddings have lots of distinctions in the wedding style, wedding customs and wedding dressings. Firstly, Western and Chinese weddings have different weddings styles. The western wedding is a romantic and terrific type from start to the end. In the west, if a man in love wants to marry a female, he must propose to the bride first, he may spend lots of time and energy to prepare for the proposal in order to give the bride a big surprise and a great touch. Besides, an engagement ring is also a necessity. On the other hand, the wedding ceremony is held in a church by a priest. The church is the most vital link in the entire wedding ceremony, where the priest asks the bride and grooms to make a lifetime commitment, then the new couple exchange marriage rings, and at the end of the wedding, the bride throws the flower ball to the female guests which makes the entire ceremony climactic. In contrast, it is traditional and special of the Chinese wedding style. In a traditional Chinese wedding, when the groom arrives at the bride's home, the bride covered by a red head-kerchief must cry with her mother to show her reluctance to leave home. The bride's family members or friends will set various tricks to the groom. For example, they won't open the door until the groom gives some gifts called Hongbao. Additionally, they may hide the bride or her shoes and ask the groom to find them out. These traditional manners are very interesting and often have their special meanings. Secondly, the wedding customs are likewise very different between Western and Chinese weddings. In the western countries, the engaged men and women have to prepare a lot for the wedding. On the night before the wedding, a rehearsal dinner after practicing the ceremony will be held and all the members will attend. It is a tradition that the groom cannot see his bride before the rehearsal dinner. Certainly, they have to prepare lots of invitation cards to invite friends, colleagues and relatives to attend their wedding. While in China, people create some funny things to make the wedding lively. For instance, the double happiness, which is on a red piece of paper or in paper cut, is always pasted up around the houses to show its happiness. Though many traditional activities can no longer be seen at a Chinese wedding, the spree bridal chamber is still common both in country and in town. The spree happens after the groom and bride go into their bridal chamber. Lots of friends and relatives, especially the young , can enter the room and play all kinds of tricks on the new couple. They cheer and laugh a lot to congratulate the couple and share their happiness so that there is an exceptionally lively atmosphere in the room. Finally, newlyweds in different nations have distinct dressings on the wedding. Western wedding cultures have special requirements for dressings. An ancient nursery rhyme about " something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue" is now an important part in a western wedding. Something old is symbolic of continuity, something new signifies hope for the future, something borrowed is emblematic of future happiness, and something blue means the color of purity. The white wedding gown is extremely common and popular, which stands for purity and beauty. However, Chinese new couples wear the clothes that represent the Chinese antique traditions. In China, red is a symbol of luck, wealth and health, so the bride's clothes on that day are always red inside and out. They may also wear Tang suits and cheong-sam if the new couple want to hold a traditional wedding ceremony. By studying the differences of Western and Chinese weddings, it helps to understand the exact features of the two kinds of weddings. The western wedding values the good feeling which gives us the impression of romanticism and freedom, while the Chinese value the ceremony which seems to be more striped-pants but owns deeper cultural connotations. Nowadays, nations learn from each other and many weddings have mixed characters of the two countries. It is great that we can combine western wedding and Chinese wedding to hold a romantic, traditional, and meaningful one. Anyhow, it will be a lovely wedding as long as happiness and love exist. |
一个月提升英语成绩和口语水平计划 [学习经验]
发表于:2012-07-16 阅读:17次
一个月提升英语成绩和口语水平计划
30天读透30篇真题,熟背30段,做30个生词表,集体听读写30遍! 英语成绩提高是最漫长的! 背单词没有用!因为背了就忘,就算记住了,还是看不懂文章! 学语法没有用!语法一学就头痛,越学越痛苦! 英语考查的是篇章理解能力!必须通过学习短文才能快速提高成绩! 那么到底如何做呢? 请仔细阅读以下计划: 一、一天“反复做”一篇“阅读理解”,不要把答案写在书上!反复做,反复体会!速度越来越快! 二、立刻制作单词表!所有生词一个都不能放过! 三、老师协助逐句翻译、逐句解释语法,彻底搞清楚! 四、全校或全年级一起听录音跟着念,一天读到30遍!这是最关键的步骤! 五、随身携带,有空就读!越读越简单,越读越轻松!遍数就是硬道理! 六、睡觉前疯狂默写!把默写过的纸都收集起来,将来可以拍卖!因为你会取得大成功! 七、用同样的方法,一周之内彻底读透一篇完形和作文! 所有资料请和老师一起从《五分钟突破高中英语》上选择!已经翻译好,已经配好录音!直接用就可以了!上了大学,还要继续学习这套经典的教材!我现在还在疯狂背诵,随身携带! 请严格执行这个流程! 请大家记住: 一、天才就是重复次数最多的人!重复就是力量!重复创造奇迹!我爱你们!我坚定地认为:你就是最伟大的天才! 二、只管大声朗读,英语就能成功! 三、语感就是一眼看出正确答案的能力!语感的好坏等于文章朗读的遍数! 四、英语长得和拼音一样,英语是汉语下的蛋!中国人一定可以征服英语! 五、录音是最好的老师,反复听录音是最有效的方法!最好集体一起听,一起狂读!让纯正的发音带动你的发音! 父母对我们无条件的付出和爱就是我们最强大的奋斗动力! 校长、老师都在爱着你们,关心着你们,保护着你们! 请不要让爱你的人失望!不要让爱你的人等待太久! 加油!你一定能成功!我一定要帮助你! 记住: 只要不饿死,就有机会创造奇迹! 而一口流利的英语就是创造奇迹最有力的工具! 英语好的人,未来一定好! |